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CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW FOR ISLAMIC SHARIA LAW

on November 28, 2017

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Flag of Liechtenstein From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Liechtenstein Flag of Liechtenstein.svg Use Civil and state flag Proportion 3:5 Adopted Jun 30, 1982 Design Horizontal bicolour of blue and red; charged with a gold crown in the canton The flag of Liechtenstein (German: Flagge Liechtensteins) consists of two horizontal blue and red bands charged with a gold crown at the canton. Adopted in 1921 after being officially enshrined into the nation's constitution, it has been the flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein since that year. The crown was added to the flag in 1937 after the country found out at the Summer Olympics held the previous year that their flag was identical to the flag of Haiti. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Design 2.1 Construction 2.2 Symbolism 3 Legal issues 4 Government flags 5 Flags of municipalities 6 Historical flags 7 References 8 External links History[edit] When flown vertically the crown on the flag is rotated so that it always faces upwards. (The flag on the left is that of Liechtenstein) Liechtenstein was formed in 1719 as a principality within the Holy Roman Empire, and gained complete independence in 1866.[1] Within this period, the colours blue and red were selected to feature on the flag, instead of the gold and red on the coat of arms that would have customarily been employed instead. These new livery colours were first utilized by Prince Joseph Wenzel I in 1764.[2] A new constitution for the Principality was formulated and proclaimed in October 1921.[2][3] It made the blue and red banner the national flag by granting it "official status".[2] Fifteen years later, during the 1936 Summer Olympics, the country came to the realization that its flag was identical to the flag of Haiti. Because of this finding, the government added the prince's crown to the canton.[2][4][5] This change served two purposes – to signify Liechtenstein's position as a principality, and to distinguish its flag from Haiti's.[4][6] This modified design was adopted on June 24, 1937.[6] Design[edit] Construction[edit] Construction sheet for the Liechtenstein flag. Symbolism[edit] The colors and symbols of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings. The blue represents the sky, while red alludes to the "evening fires" that are lit inside houses throughout the country.[2] The crown – whose colour is disputed – epitomizes the "unity of the people and their prince."[2] While The World Factbook and Reuters describe it as gold in colour,[4][5] other sources – such as Whitney Smith in the Encyclopædia Britannica – describe it as yellow.[2][6] Legal issues[edit] In February 2004, the Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) of Liechtenstein called for the capture of a Falcon 50 private jet that was owned by the former regime of Saddam Hussein and kept in Amman, Jordan. They sought this action because the plane flew the flag of Liechtenstein and had a registration number from Switzerland, which keeps the civil aviation records of the Principality. This was carried out shortly afterwards in order to comply with United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483.[7] After being transported to Basel and revamped entirely, the Liechtensteiner government returned the plane to the new government of Iraq on December 5, 2005. This marked the first Iraqi aircraft seized under UN sanctions to be given back to the country.[8] Government flags[edit] Standard of the Prince of Liechtenstein. Standard of the Prince of Liechtenstein. Standard of the Government of Liechtenstein. Standard of the Government of Liechtenstein. Banner of the Princely House of Liechtenstein. Banner of the Princely House of Liechtenstein. Flags of municipalities[edit] The eleven municipalities each have their own flag. Flag of Ruggell Flag of Schellenberg Flag of Gamprin Flag of Eschen Flag of Mauren Flag of Schaan Flag of Planken Flag of Vaduz Flag of Triesenberg Flag of Triesen Flag of Balzers Historical flags[edit] Flag Duration Use Description Flag of Liechtenstein (1719-1852).svg 1719–1852 Flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein Two horizontal gold and red bands at 3:5 proportions. Flag of Liechtenstein (1852-1921).svg 1852–1921 Flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein Two vertical blue and red bands at 3:5 proportions. Flag of Liechtenstein (1921-1937).svg 1921–1937 Flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein Two horizontal blue and red bands at 3:5 proportions. Flag of Liechtenstein 1937.svg 1937–1982 Flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein Two horizontal blue and red bands at 3:5 proportions, and princely crown in top-left corner. References[edit] Jump up ^ "Liechtenstein profile". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved June 26, 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Smith, Whitney (July 17, 2013). "Flag of Liechtenstein". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved June 26, 2014. (subscription required) Jump up ^ "History of Liechtenstein". Lonely Planet. Retrieved June 26, 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Liechtenstein". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved June 26, 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b Rainey, Venetia (July 24, 2012). "Flag bearing: a potted history". Reuters. Retrieved June 26, 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b c Kindersley, Dorling (November 3, 2008). Complete Flags of the World. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. p. 148. ISBN 9781405338615. Retrieved June 26, 2014. Jump up ^ "Leichtenstein [sic] orders seizure of Saddam jet in Amman". Agence France-Presse. February 26, 2004. Retrieved June 26, 2014. (subscription required) Jump up ^ "Saddam plane handed over". Cayman Compass. Associated Press. December 5, 2005. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved June 26, 2014. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein at Flags of the World (in German) Original Law text [show] v t e Liechtenstein articles [show] v t e Flags of Europe [show] v t e National flags and coats of arms Categories: National flagsNational symbols of LiechtensteinFlags introduced in 1937 Navigation menu Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView historySearch Search Wikipedia Go Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ العربية Azərbaycanca Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית Latviešu Lietuvių Lumbaart Magyar Македонски Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Română Русский Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt Yorùbá 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 December 2017, at 00:51. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki

Flag of Liechtenstein From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Liechtenstein Use Civil and state flag Proportion 3:5 Adopted Jun 30, 1982 Design Horizontal bicolour of blue and red ; charged with a gold crown in the canton The flag of Liechtenstein ( German : Flagge Liechtensteins ) consists of two horizontal blue and red bands charged with a gold crown at the canton . Adopted in 1921 after being officially enshrined into the nation's constitution , it has been the flag of the Principality of Liechtenstein since that year. The crown was added to the flag in 1937 after the country found out at the Summer Olympics held the previous year that their flag was identical to the flag of Haiti . Contents [ hide ] 1 History 2 Design 2.1 Construction 2.2 Symbolism 3 Legal issues 4 Government flags 5...

Snapchat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the app. For the company, see Snap Inc. Not to be confused with Shaphat. Snapchat App icon seen on Android and iOS App icon seen on Android and iOS [show] Screenshot Original author(s) Evan Spiegel Bobby Murphy Reggie Brown Developer(s) Snap Inc. Initial release September 2011; 6 years ago Stable release(s) [±] Android 10.18.5.0 / October 5, 2017; 3 months ago[1][2] iOS 10.18.1.0 / October 6, 2017; 3 months ago[3] Preview release(s) [±] Android 10.23.19 / January 11, 2018; 2 days ago[4] Development status Active Operating system Android, iOS Size 52.19 MB (Android) 95.7 MB (iOS) Available in 20 languages [show] List of languages Type Photo sharing Instant messaging Video chat Multimedia License Proprietary software Alexa rank Negative increase 4,458 (As of December 2017)[5] Website www.snapchat.com Snapchat is an image messaging and multimedia mobile application created by Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy, and Reggie Brown,[6] former students at Stanford University, and developed by Snap Inc., originally Snapchat Inc. One of the principal concepts of Snapchat is that pictures and messages are only available for a short time before they become inaccessible. The app has evolved from originally focusing on person-to-person photo sharing to presently featuring "Stories" of 24-hour chronological content, along with "Discover" to let brands show ad-supported short-form entertainment. Snapchat has become notable for representing a new, mobile-first direction for social media, and places significant emphasis on users interacting with virtual stickers and augmented reality objects. As of May 2017, Snapchat has 166 million daily active users. Contents 1 History 1.1 Prototype 1.2 Growth 2 Features 2.1 Core functionality 2.1.1 Friend Emojis 2.2 Stories and Discover 2.2.1 Original video content 2.3 Messaging 3 Business and multimedia 3.1 Demographics 3.2 Communication 3.3 Monetization 4 Controversy 4.1 December 2013 hack 4.2 Federal Trade Commission 4.3 Lens incidents 4.4 Patent Infringement 4.5 "Poor Country" remark 4.6 "Snap Map" privacy concerns 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links History For a chronological guide to this subject, see Timeline of Snapchat. Prototype According to documents and deposition statements, Reggie Brown brought the idea for a disappearing pictures application to Evan Spiegel because Spiegel had prior business experience. Brown and Spiegel then pulled in Bobby Murphy, who had experience coding. The three worked closely together for several months, and launched Snapchat as "Picaboo" on the iOS operating system on July 8, 2011.[7][8] Spiegel and Murphy then decided to "toss Brown out of the company".[9] The app was relaunched as Snapchat in September 2011, and the team focused on usability and technical aspects, rather than branding efforts.[10] One exception was the decision to keep a mascot designed by Brown, "Ghostface Chillah", named after Ghostface Killah of the hip-hop group Wu-Tang Clan.[10] On May 8, 2012, Reggie Brown sent an email to Evan Spiegel during their senior year at Stanford in which he offered to re-negotiate his equitable share regarding ownership of the company. Lawyers for Snapchat responded by insisting that he had never had any creative connection to the product. The attorneys also accused Brown of committing fraud against Spiegel and Murphy by falsely claiming to be a product inventor. On behalf of their clients, the law firm concluded that Reggie Brown had made no contributions of value or worth, and was therefore entitled to a share of nothing.[11][12] In September 2014, Brown settled with Spiegel and Murphy for $157.5 million[13] and for getting credited as one of the original authors of Snapchat.[6][14][15] In their first blog post, dated May 9, 2012, CEO Evan Spiegel described the company's mission: "Snapchat isn’t about capturing the traditional Kodak moment. It’s about communicating with the full range of human emotion — not just what appears to be pretty or perfect."[16] He presented Snapchat as the solution to stresses caused by the longevity of personal information on social media, evidenced by "emergency detagging of Facebook photos before job interviews and photoshopping blemishes out of candid shots before they hit the internet".[16] Growth World map indicating Snapchat's core users by country in 2014. Map based on data from a report from Business Insider Intelligence.[17] In May 2012, 25 images were being sent per second[18] and, as of November 28, 2012, users had shared over one billion photos on the Snapchat iOS app, with 20 million photos being shared per day.[18][19] In November 2012, Spiegel cited problems with userbase scalability as the reason why Snapchat was experiencing some difficulties delivering its images, known as "snaps", in real time.[18] Snapchat was released as an Android app on October 29, 2012.[18] In June 2013, Snapchat version 5.0, dubbed "Banquo", was released for iOS. The updated version introduced several speed and design enhancements, including swipe navigation, double-tap to reply, an improved friend finder, and in-app profiles.[20] The name is a reference to the ghostly hero from Shakespeare's Macbeth, a character in the play who is ultimately seen to be victorious over evil.[21] Also in June 2013, Snapchat introduced Snapkidz for users under 13 years of age. Snapkidz was part of the original Snapchat application and was activated when the user provided a date of birth to verify his/her age. Snapkidz allowed children to take snaps and draw on them, but they could not send snaps to other users and could only save snaps locally on the device being used.[22] According to Snapchat's published statistics, as of May 2015, the app's users were sending 2 billion videos per day, reaching 6 billion by November.[23] By 2016, Snapchat had hit 10 billion daily video views.[24] In May 2016, Snapchat raised $1.81 billion in equity offering, suggesting strong investor interest in the company.[25] By May 31, 2016, the app had almost 10 million daily active users in the United Kingdom.[26] In February 2017, Snapchat had 160 million daily active users,[27][28] growing to 166 million in May.[29][30] Snapchat Spectacles Vending Machine at SXSW 2017, Austin, Texas In September 2016, Snapchat Inc. was renamed Snap Inc., along with the introduction of the company's first hardware gadget, Spectacles, a pair of smartglasses with a built-in camera that can record 10 seconds of video at a time.[31] On February 20, 2017, Spectacles became available for purchase online.[32] Features Core functionality Snapchat is primarily used for creating multimedia messages referred to as "snaps"; snaps can consist of a photo or a short video, and can be edited to include filters and effects, text captions, and drawings.[33][34] The ability to send video snaps was added as a feature option in December 2012. By holding down on the photo button while inside the app, a video of up to ten seconds in length can be captured. After a single viewing, the video disappears by default. Spiegel explained that this process allowed the video data to be compressed into the size of a photo.[35] On May 1, 2014, the ability to communicate via video chat was added. Direct messaging features were also included in the update, allowing users to send ephemeral text messages to friends and family while saving any needed information by clicking on it.[36][37] A feature known as "Geofilters" was added in July 2014, which allows special graphical overlays to be available if the user is within a certain geographical location, such as a city, event, or destination.[38][39] Snapchat users can design and submit their own "Geofilters" to be used on the app. The "Lens" feature, introduced in September 2015, allows users to add real-time effects into their snaps by using face detection technology. This is activated by long-pressing on a face within the viewfinder.[40] In April 2017, Snapchat extended this feature into "World Lenses", which use augmented reality technology to integrate 3D rendered elements (such as objects and animated characters) into scenes; these elements are placed and anchored in 3D space.[41][42] Snaps can be directed privately to selected contacts, or to a semi-public "Story".[43] The private message photo snaps can be viewed for a user-specified length of time (1 to 10 seconds as determined by the sender) before they become inaccessible. Users were previously required to hold down on the screen in order to view a snap; this behavior was removed in July 2015[44] The requirement to hold on the screen was intended to frustrate the ability to take screenshots of snaps; the Snapchat app does not prevent screenshots from being taken, but can notify the sender if it detects that it has been saved. However, these notifications can be bypassed through either unauthorized modifications to the app or by obtaining the image through external means.[10][18][45] One snap per day can be replayed for free.[46] In September 2015, Snapchat introduced the option to purchase additional replays through in-app purchases.[47][46][48] The ability to purchase extra replays was removed in April 2016.[49][50] Friends can be added via usernames and phone contacts, using customizable "Snapcodes", or through the "Add Nearby" function, which scans for users near their location who are also in the Add Nearby menu.[44][51] Spiegel explained that Snapchat is intended to counteract the trend of users being compelled to manage an idealized online identity of themselves, which he says has "taken all of the fun out of communicating".[10] In November 2014, Snapchat introduced "Snapcash", a feature that lets users send and receive money to each other through private messaging. The payments system is powered by Square.[52][53] In July 2016, Snapchat introduced a new, optional feature known as "Memories". Memories allows snaps and story posts to be saved into a private storage area, where they can be viewed alongside other photos stored on the device, as well as edited and published as snaps, story posts, or messages. When shared to a user's current story, the memory would have a white frame and timestamp to indicate its age. Content in the Memories storage area can be searched by date or using a local object recognition system. Snaps accessible within Memories can additionally be placed into a "My Eyes Only" area that is locked with a PIN. Snapchat has stated that the Memories feature was inspired by the practice of manually scrolling through photos on a phone to show them to others.[54] In April 2017, the white border around old memories was removed. While originally intended to let viewers know the material was old, TechCrunch wrote that the indicator "ended up annoying users who didn’t want their snaps altered, sometimes to the point where they would decide not to share the old content at all".[55][56] July 2016 also marked Snapchat's acquisition of Bitstrips and its app Bitmoji, which allows users to design stickers featuring personalized cartoon avatars. At this time, Snapchat launched integration between Bitmoji and Snapchat, allowing users to link their accounts and use Bitmoji stickers within snaps and messages.[57][58] Bitmoji characters can also be used as World Lenses.[59] In August 2016, Snapchat launched Geostickers, a feature that lets users send city-specific stickers in snaps and messages. Original launch cities were San Francisco (which launched with 15 stickers), Los Angeles, New York, Washington, D.C., Honolulu, London, Sydney, São Paulo, Paris and Riyadh.[60] In May 2017, an update made it possible to send snaps with unlimited viewing time, dropping the previous ten-second maximum duration, with the content disappearing after being deliberately closed by the recipient. New creative tools, namely the ability to draw with an emoji, videos that play in a loop, and an eraser that lets users remove objects in a photo with the app filling in the space with the background, were also released.[61][62] In June 2017, Snapchat started allowing users to add links to snaps, enabling them to direct viewers to specific websites; the feature was only available for brands previously. Additionally, the update added more creative tools: A "Backdrop" feature lets users cut out a specific object from their photo and apply colorful patterns to it in order to bring greater emphasis to that object, and "Voice Filters" enable users to remix the sounds of their voices in the snap. Voice Filters was previously available as part of the feature enabling augmented reality lenses, with the new update adding a dedicated speaker icon to remix the audio in any snap.[63][64] Friend Emojis As incentive to send content regularly, emoji icons will appear next to the names of contacts that the user frequently interacts with.[65] Emoji Friend Emoji Name Snapchat Meaning 💕 Super BFF Appears next to your #1 Best Friend when you're also their #1 Best Friend - for two months in a row. ❤️ BFF Appears next to your #1 Best Friend when you're also their #1 Best Friend - for two weeks in a row. 💛 Besties Appears next to your #1 Best Friend when you're also their #1 Best Friend. 😊 BFs Appears next to one of your Best Friends 😏 Their BF, but... Appears next to someone when you are one of their Best Friends, but they are not one of yours. 😬 Mutual Besties Appears next to someone when your #1 Best Friend is also their #1 Best Friend. 😎 Mutual BFs Appears next to someone whom you share a best friend with. 🔥 Snapstreak Appears next to the number of days that you and a friend have Snapped each other. If you and your friend don't both send a Snap within 24 hours, you will lose your Snapstreaks. ✨ Group Chat Appears next to all of your group chats. ⌛️ Hourglass Appears next to someone’s name if your Snapstreak is going to end soon. Send each other a Snap, not a chat, to keep your streak alive 🎂 Birthday Cake Appears next to someone when it is their birthday. Stories and Discover In October 2013, Snapchat introduced the "My Story" feature, which allows users to compile snaps into chronological storylines, accessible to all of their friends.[43][66] By June 2014, photo and video snaps presented to friends in the Stories functionality had surpassed person-to-person private snaps as the most frequently-used function of the service, with over one billion viewed per day — double the daily views tallied in April 2014.[67] In June 2014, the story feature was expanded to incorporate "Our Stories", which was then changed to "Live Stories" about a year later. The feature allows users on-location at specific events (such as music festivals or sporting events) to contribute snaps to a curated story advertised to all users, showcasing a single event from multiple perspectives and viewpoints. These curated snaps provided by the app's contributors and selected for the "Live" section could also be more localized, but Snapchat eventually scaled back the more personal imaging streams in order to emphasize public events.[68][69][70][71][72][73] An "Official Stories" designation was added in November 2015 to denote the public stories of notable figures and celebrities, similar to Twitter's "Verified account" program.[74] In January 2015, Snapchat introduced "Discover", an area containing channels of ad-supported short-form content from major publishers, including BuzzFeed, CNN, ESPN, Mashable, People, Vice and Snapchat itself among others.[75][76][77] To address data usage concerns related to these functions, a "Travel Mode" option was added in August 2015. When activated, the feature prevents the automatic downloading of snaps until they are explicitly requested by the user.[78] In October 2016, the app was updated to replace its auto-advance functionality, which automatically moved users from one story to the next, with a "Story Playlist" feature, letting users select thumbnails of users in the list to play only selected stories.[79][80] In January 2017, Snapchat revamped its design, adding search functionality and a new global live "Our Story" feature, to which any user can contribute.[81] In May 2017, Snapchat introduced "Custom Stories", letting users collaboratively make stories combining their captures.[82][83] In June 2017, "Snap Map" was introduced, which allows users to optionally share their location with friends. A map display, accessible from the viewfinder, can be used to locate stories based on location data, supporting the use of Bitmoji as placemarkers. Entering a "Ghost Mode" hides the user from the map.[84][85] The function is based on the app Zenly, which was acquired by Snap Inc. prior to its launch.[86] The map data is supplied from OpenStreetMap and Mapbox, while satellite imagery comes from DigitalGlobe.[87] Original video content The Wall Street Journal reported in May 2017 that Snap Inc., the company developing Snapchat, had signed deals with NBCUniversal, A&E Networks, BBC, ABC, Metro–Goldwyn–Mayer and other content producers to develop original shows for viewing through Snapchat's "Stories" format. According to the report, Snap hopes to have several new shows available on a daily basis, with each show lasting between three and five minutes, and the company has sent out detailed reports to its partners on how to produce content for Snapchat.[88][89][90] Messaging Example Snapchat "snap" on smartphone. In contrast to other messaging apps, Spiegel described Snapchat's messaging functions as being "conversational," rather than "transactional," as they sought to replicate the conversations he engaged in with friends. Spiegel stated that he did not experience conversational interactions while using the products of competitors like iMessage.[36] Rather than a traditional online notification, a blue pulsing "Here" button is displayed within the sender's chat window if the recipient is currently viewing their own chat window. When this button is held down, a video chat function is immediately launched.[36] By default, messages disappear after they are read, and a notification is sent to the recipient only when they start to type.[36] Users can also use messages to reply to snaps that are part of a story.[91] The video chat feature uses technology from AddLive—a real-time communications provider that Snapchat acquired prior to the feature's launch.[92] In regards to the "Here" indicator, Spiegel explained that "the accepted notion of an online indicator that every chat service has is really a negative indicator. It means 'my friend is available and doesn't want to talk to you,' versus this idea in Snapchat where 'my friend is here and is giving you their full attention.'" Spiegel further claimed that the Here video function prevents the awkwardness that can arise from apps that use typing indicators because, with text communication, conversations lose their fluidity as each user tries to avoid typing at the same time.[36] On March 29, 2016, Snapchat launched a major revision of the messaging functionality known as "Chat 2.0", adding stickers, easier access to audio and video conferencing, the ability to leave audio or video "notes", and the ability to share recent camera photos. The implementation of these features are meant to allow users to easily shift between text, audio, and video chat as needed while retaining an equal level of functionality.[93] Business and multimedia Demographics From its earliest days, Snapchat's main demographic has consisted of millennials.[94] In 2014, researchers from the University of Washington and Seattle Pacific University designed a user survey to help understand how and why the application was being used. The researchers originally hypothesized that due to the ephemeral nature of Snapchat messages, its use would be predominantly for privacy-sensitive content including the much talked about potential use for sexual content and sexting.[95] However, it appears that Snapchat is used for a variety of creative purposes that are not necessarily privacy-related at all.[95] In the study, only 1.6% of respondents reported using Snapchat primarily for sexting, although 14.2% admitted to having sent sexual content via Snapchat at some point.[95] These findings suggest that users do not seem to utilize Snapchat for sensitive content. Rather, the primary use for Snapchat was found to be for comedic content such as "stupid faces" with 59.8% of respondents reporting this use most commonly.[95] The researchers also determined how Snapchat users do not use the application and what types of content they are not willing to send. They found that the majority of users are not willing to send content classified as sexting (74.8% of respondents), photos of documents (85.0% of respondents), messages containing legally questionable content (86.6% of respondents), or content considered mean or insulting (93.7% of respondents).[95] The study results also suggested that Snapchat's success is not due to its security properties, but because the users found the application to be fun. The researchers found that users seem to be well aware (79.4% of respondents) that recovering snaps is possible and a majority of users (52.8% of respondents) report that this does not affect their behavior and use of Snapchat.[95] Most users (52.8% of respondents) were found to use an arbitrary timeout length on snaps regardless of the content type or recipient. The remaining respondents were found to adjust their snaps' timeout depending on the content or the recipient.[95] Reasons for adjusting the time length of snaps included the level of trust and relationship with the recipient, the time needed to comprehend the snap, and avoiding screenshots.[95] Communication Snapchat has often been seen to represent a new direction in social media, with its users, particularly millennials, craving a more in-the-moment way of sharing and communicating via technology. With less emphasis on the accumulation of an ongoing status involving the presence of permanent material, Snapchat put focus on the ephemeral nature of fleeting encounters.[96] Building on this distinction by launching as a mobile-first company, Snapchat, in the midst of the app revolution and the growing presence of cellular communication, didn't have to make the transition to mobile in the way other competing social media networks had to do. Evan Spiegel himself described Snapchat as primarily a camera company.[97][98] Spiegel also dismissed past comparisons to other social media networks such as Facebook and Twitter when he was asked if the 2016 presidential race was going to be remembered as the Snapchat election, although major candidates did occasionally use the app to reach voters.[99] Nevertheless, the growing mobile app moved to offer distinct publication, media, and news content within its Discover channel, as well as with its overall style of presentation. With Snapchat, a clear and identifiable line was drawn between brand content and user based messaging and sharing, once again distinguishing the popular app from other social media networks, which typically have blended and blurred their different varieties of content.[100] Monetization Snapchat's developing features embody a deliberate strategy of monetization. Snapchat announced its then-upcoming advertising efforts on October 17, 2014, when it acknowledged its need for a revenue stream.[101] The company stated that it wanted to evaluate "if we can deliver an experience that's fun and informative, the way ads used to be, before they got creepy and targeted."[102] Snapchat's first paid advertisement, in the form of a 20-second movie trailer for the horror film Ouija, was shown to users on October 19, 2014.[103][104] The "Discover" feature, which presents short-form content from publishers, allows for paid advertising. The entity that sells the ad campaign causes the revenue distribution between Snapchat and its partner to vary, but it is estimated that advertisements are worth ten to fifteen cents per view. Furthermore, advertisements are estimated to be seen 500,000 to 1,000,000 times a day.[76][77][105] In June 2015, Snapchat announced that it would allow advertisers to purchase sponsored geofilters for snaps; an early customer of the offering was McDonald's, who paid for a branded geofilter covering its restaurant locations in the United States.[38] The advertising of Snapchat's "ghost" logo at Times Square in New York City in April 2016. In October 2015, Snapchat started working with companies to create sponsored Lens filters.[106] In May 2016, as part of a campaign to promote X-Men: Apocalypse, 20th Century Fox paid for the entire array of lenses to be replaced by those based on characters from the X-Men series and films for a single day.[107] Ad placements can be sold within a live story, or a story can be pitched by a sponsor. Live stories are estimated to reach an average of 20 million viewers in a 24-hour span.[71] In September 2015, the service entered into a partnership with the National Football League to present live stories from selected games (including a Sunday game, and marquee games such as Monday Night Football and Thursday Night Football), with both parties contributing content and handling ad sales.[71][108] Mary Meeker, a partner at Silicon Valley venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers, which negotiated a financial agreement with Snapchat in August 2014,[109] highlighted the growth of vertical video viewing in her 2015 Internet Trends Report – growing from 5% of video viewing in 2010 to 29% in 2015. Vertical video ads like Snapchat's are watched in their entirety nine times more than landscape video ads.[110] In April 2016, NBC Olympics announced that it had reached a deal with Snapchat to allow stories from the 2016 Summer Olympics to be featured on Snapchat in the United States. The content will include a behind-the-scenes Discover channel curated by BuzzFeed (a company which NBCUniversal has funded), and stories featuring a combination of footage from NBC, athletes, and attendees. NBC will sell advertising and enter into revenue sharing agreements. This marks the first time NBC has allowed Olympics footage to be featured on third-party property.[111] In July 2016, it was reported that Snapchat had submitted a patent application for the process of using an object recognition system to deliver sponsored filters based on objects seen in a camera view.[112] In April 2017, Digiday reported that Snapchat would launch a self-service manager for advertising on the platform.[113] The feature launched the following month, alongside news of a Snapchat Mobile Dashboard for tracking ad campaigns, set to roll out in June to select countries.[114] In April 2017, Snapchat introduced a "Snap to Store" advertising tool that lets companies using geostickers to track whether users buy their product or visit their store in a 7-day period after seeing the relevant geosticker.[115][116] Controversy December 2013 hack Snapchat was hacked on December 31, 2013.[117][118] Gibson Security, an Australian security firm, had disclosed an API security vulnerability to the company on August 27, 2013,[119][120] and then made public the source code for the exploit on Christmas Day (Australian time; Christmas Eve in the US).[121][122] On December 27, Snapchat announced that it had implemented mitigating features.[123] Nonetheless, an anonymous group hacked them, saying that the mitigating features presented only "minor obstacles".[124][125] The hackers revealed parts of approximately 4.6 million Snapchat usernames and phone numbers on a website named "SnapchatDB.info"[118][126][127] and sent a statement to the popular technology blog TechCrunch saying that their objective had been to "raise public awareness ... and ... put public pressure on Snapchat" to fix the vulnerability.[126] Snapchat apologized a week after the hack.[128] Federal Trade Commission In 2014, Snapchat settled a complaint made by the Federal Trade Commission. The government agency alleged that the company had exaggerated to the public the degree to which mobile app images and photos could actually be made to disappear. Under the terms of the agreement, Snapchat was not fined, but the app service agreed to have its claims and policies monitored by an independent party for a period of 20 years. The FTC concluded that Snapchat was prohibited from "misrepresenting the extent to which it maintains the privacy, security, or confidentiality of users' information."[129] Following the agreement, Snapchat updated its privacy page to state that the company "can't guarantee that messages will be deleted within a specific timeframe." [130] Even after Snapchat deletes message data from their servers, that same data may remain in backup for a certain period of time.[130] In a public blog post, the service warned that "If you've ever tried to recover lost data after accidentally deleting a drive or maybe watched an episode of CSI, you might know that with the right forensic tools, it's sometimes possible to retrieve data after it has been deleted."[131] Lens incidents In September 2015, an 18-year-old was using a Snapchat feature called "Lens" to record the speed she was driving her Mercedes C230 when she crashed into a Mitsubishi Outlander in Hampton, Georgia. The 107 mph (172 km/h) crash injured both drivers. The driver of the Outlander spent five weeks in intensive care while he was treated for severe traumatic brain injury. In April 2016, the Outlander driver sued both Snapchat and the user of Snapchat, alleging that Snapchat knew its application was being used in unlawful speed contests, yet did nothing to prevent such use so is negligent.[132] A similar collision while driving at 115 mph (185 km/h), occurred in Tampa, Florida in October 2016 that killed five people.[133] Patent Infringement In 2016, Snapchat was sued by Canadian company Investel for infringement on its geofiltering patent.[134][135] "Poor Country" remark According to former Snapchat employee Anthony Pompliano in a lawsuit filed against Snap Inc., Spiegel made a statement in 2015 that Snapchat is "only for rich people" and that he does not "want to expand into poor countries like India and Spain".[136] The incident sparked a Twitter trend called "#UninstallSnapchat", in which Indian users uninstalled the app,[137] and caused backlash against the company in terms of low "one-star" ratings for the app in the Google Play store and Apple's App Store.[138][139] Snapchat's shares fell by 1.5%.[140] In response to the allegation, Snapchat called Pompliano's claim "ridiculous", and elaborated that "Obviously Snapchat is for everyone. It’s available worldwide to download for free".[139] "Snap Map" privacy concerns The June 2017 release of "Snap Map", a feature that broadcasts the user's location on a map, was met with concerns over privacy and safety. The feature, though opt-in, delivers a message asking if the user would like to show their position on the map, but reportedly doesn't explain the ramifications of doing so, including that the app updates the user's position on the map each time the app is opened and not just when actively capturing snaps, potentially allowing for stalkers. The map can be zoomed in to feature detailed geographical information, such as street addresses.[141] The Daily Telegraph reported that police forces had issued child safety warnings,[142] while other media publications wrote that safety concerns were also raised for teenagers and adults unaware of the feature's actual behavior.[141][143] In a statement to The Verge, a Snapchat spokesperson said that "The safety of our community is very important to us and we want to make sure that all Snapchatters, parents, and educators have accurate information about how the Snap Map works".[141] See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Ephemera – any transitory written or printed matter not meant to be retained or preserved List of virtual communities with more than 100 million active users Timeline of social media Sobrr, another mobile application which deletes content after a specified time References "Snapchat - Android Apps on Google Play". Google Play. Google. October 5, 2017. 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"Investel sues Snapchat alleging geofiltering patent infringement". CBC News. August 24, 2016. Retrieved January 14, 2017. "Investel Capital Corp vs. Snapchat, Inc – complete Statement of Claim" (PDF). Maddaus, Gene (April 11, 2017). "Snapchat CEO Said 'This App Is Only for Rich People,' Ex-Employee Alleges". Variety. Penske Media Corporation. Retrieved April 24, 2017. Hinchcliffe, Emma (April 15, 2017). "#UninstallSnapchat is taking off in India after an allegedly terrible comment from Snap's CEO". Mashable. Retrieved April 24, 2017. "Snapchat's App Rating Takes A Massive Hit On Play Store Thanks To 'Poor Indians', Spokesperson Issues Clarification". The Times of India. The Times Group. April 16, 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2017. Safi, Michael (April 17, 2017). "Snapchat denies claim CEO did not want to expand into 'poor India'". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group. Retrieved April 24, 2017. Randewich, Noel; Ingram, David (April 17, 2017). 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Snapchat From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the app. For the company, see Snap Inc. Not to be confused with Shaphat . Snapchat App icon seen on Android and iOS [show] Screenshot Original author(s) Evan Spiegel Bobby Murphy Reggie Brown Developer(s) Snap Inc. Initial release September 2011 ; 6 years ago Stable release(s) [±] Android 10.18.5.0 / October 5, 2017 ; 3 months ago [1] [2] iOS 10.18.1.0 / October 6, 2017 ; 3 months ago [3] Preview release(s) [±] Android 10.23.19 / January 11, 2018 ; 2 days ago [4] Development status Active Operating system Android , iOS Size 52.19 MB (Android) 95.7 MB (iOS) Available in 20 languages [show] List of languages Type Photo sharing Instant messaging Video chat Multimedia License Proprietary software Alexa rank 4...

Hadith From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Part of a series on Hadith Hadith calligraphy Hadith studies[show] Collections[show] Related topics[show] Category Book v t e A hadith (/ˈhædɪθ/[1] or /hɑːˈdiːθ/;[2] Arabic: حديث‎ ḥadīth, plural: ahadith, أحاديث, ʼaḥādīth[3]) is one of various reports describing the words, actions, or habits of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[3] The term comes from the Arabic language and means a "report", "account" or "narrative". Unlike the Qur'an, which is the same literary work recognized by all Muslims, the ahadith are not one single same collection. The ahadith refers to different hadith collections, and different branches of Islam (Sunni, Shia, Ibadi) consult different collections of hadith, while the relatively small sect of Quranists reject the authority of any of the hadith collections altogether.[4][5] Just as the minority Quranists are not a single community, believers of the ahadith, or hadithists, are also not a single community. Hadithists simply share the feature that, in addition to Quran, they incorporate belief and practice of ahadith— though not necessarily the same hadith collection. Among most hadithists, the importance of ahadith is secondary to Qur'an given that, at least in theory, an Islamic conflict of laws doctrine holds Qur'anic supremacy above ahadith in developing Islamic jurisprudence.[6] Despite this, however, a minority of hadithists have historically placed ahadith at a par with the Qur'an. A smaller minority yet have even upheld ahadith that contradict the Qur'an, thereby in practice placing ahadith above Qur'an, claiming that contradicting ahadith abrogate those parts of the Qur'an with which they conflict. The hadith literature is based on spoken reports that were in circulation in society after the death of Muhammad. Unlike the Qur'an the hadiths were not quickly and concisely compiled during and immediately after Muhammad's life.[3] Hadith were evaluated and gathered into large collections during the 8th and 9th centuries, generations after the death of Muhammad, after the end of the era of the "rightful" Rashidun Caliphate, over 1,000 km (620 mi) from where Muhammad lived. Hadith are regarded by hadithists as important tools for understanding the Quran and commentaries (tafsir) written on it. Some important elements, which are today taken to be a long-held part of normative traditional Islamic practice and belief, for example, the detailed ritual practice of the five salat (obligatory Islamic prayers), are in fact not mentioned in the Qur'an at all, but are derived solely from the hadith.[7] Hadithists, therefore, maintain that the ahadith are a necessary requirement for the true and proper practice of Islam, as it gives Muslims the nuanced details of Islamic practice and belief in areas where the Qur'an is silent. Quranists, on the contrary, hold the critical view on hadith that anything on which the Qur'an is silent is deliberate because Allah did not hold its detail to be of consequence, and in the case of ahadith that contradict the Qur'an, more so should those ahadith be forcefully rejected outright as a corruption of Islam. In the classical example of salat (obligatory Islamic prayers), where salat is commanded in the Qur'an, all Muslims agree that salat is an obligatory part of Islamic religious practice. Divergence among Muslims arises, therefore, in how salat is performed. According to hadithists, the details and instructions of how to correctly perform salat, so as to, in their view, "validly" fulfill the Qur'anic commmand of performing salat, can only be found in the ahadith. Despite this, salat is nonetheless performed differently by different hadithist Islamic sects, depending on which hadith collection each hadithist sect relies upon. Quranists, for their part, leave the detail of salat to be a matter between each individual Muslim and Allah, with salat performance done to each Muslim's own individual understanding, interpretation and need. In the Quranists' view, as the Qur'an is deliberately silent on the details of salat, Allah did not hold its detail to be of consequence, so correctly performed salat lies not in any supposed correct details of the performance of prayer, but on a correct intention to perform the prayers, valid however it may be individually performed. A hadith has two parts in its classic form, the chain of narrators who have transmitted the report (the isnad), and the main text of the report (the matn).[8][9][10][11] Individual hadith are classified by Muslim clerics and jurists as sahih ("authentic"), hasan ("good") or da'if ("weak").[12] However, different groups and different scholars may classify a hadith differently. A manuscript copy of al-Bukhari, Mamluk era, 13th century, Egypt. Adilnor Collection, Sweden. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Components 4 Different schools 5 Impact on Islam 6 History, tradition and usage 6.1 History 6.2 Shia and Sunni textual traditions 6.2.1 Extent and nature in the Sunni tradition 6.2.2 Extent and nature in the Shia tradition 6.3 Modern usage 7 Studies 7.1 Terminology: admissible and inadmissible hadiths 7.2 Biographical evaluation 8 Criticism 9 See also 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology[edit] Part of a series on Muhammad Muhammad Life[show] Career[show] Miracles[show] Views[show] Succession[show] Praise[show] Perspectives[show] Related[show] Portal-puzzle.svg Muhammad portal Allah-green.svg Islam portal v t e In Arabic, the noun ḥadīth (Arabic: حديث‎ ḥadīth IPA: [ħaˈdiːθ]) means "report", "account", or "narrative".[13][14] Its Arabic plural is ʾaḥādīth (أحاديث) (IPA: [ʔaħaːˈdiːθ]).[3] Hadith also refers to the speech of a person.[15] Definition[edit] In Islamic terminology, according to Juan Campo, the term hadith refers to reports of statements or actions of Muhammad, or of his tacit approval or criticism of something said or done in his presence,[11] though some sources (Khaled Abou El Fadl) limit hadith to verbal reports, with the deeds of Muhammad and reports about his companions being part of the Sunnah not hadith.[16] Classical hadith specialist Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani says that the intended meaning of hadith in religious tradition is something attributed to Muhammad but that is not found in the Quran.[17] Other associated words possess similar meanings including: khabar (news, information) often refers to reports about Muhammad, but sometimes refers to traditions about his companions and their successors from the following generation; conversely, athar (trace, vestige) usually refers to traditions about the companions and successors, though sometimes connotes traditions about Muhammad. The word sunnah (custom) is also used in reference to a normative custom of Muhammad or the early Muslim community.[11] See also: Categories of Ahadith Components[edit] The two major aspects of a hadith are the text of the report (the matn), which contains the actual narrative, and the chain of narrators (the isnad), which documents the route by which the report has been transmitted.[8][11] The isnad was an effort to document that a hadith had actually come from Muhammad, and Muslim scholars from the eighth century until today have never ceased repeating the mantra "The isnad is part of the religion - if not for the isnad, whoever wanted could say whatever they wanted."[8] The isnad means literally 'support', and it is so named due to the reliance of the hadith specialists upon it in determining the authenticity or weakness of a hadith.[18] The isnad consists of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the one from whom they heard the hadith, until mentioning the originator of the matn along with the matn itself. The first people to hear hadith were the companions who preserved it and then conveyed it to those after them. Then the generation following them received it, thus conveying it to those after them and so on. So a companion would say, "I heard the Prophet say such and such." The Follower would then say, "I heard a companion say, 'I heard the Prophet.'" The one after him would then say, "I heard someone say, 'I heard a Companion say, 'I heard the Prophet..." and so on.[19] Different schools[edit] Different branches of Islam refer to different collections of hadith, though the same incident may be found in hadith in different collections: In the Sunni branch of Islam, the canonical hadith collections are the six books, of which Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim generally have the highest status. The other books of hadith are Sunan Abu Dawood, Jami` at-Tirmidhi, Al-Sunan al-Sughra and Sunan ibn Majah. However the Malikis, one of the four Sunni "schools of thought" (madhhabs), traditionally reject Sunan ibn Majah and assert the canonical status of Muwatta Imam Malik. In the Twelver Shi'a branch of Islam, the canonical hadith collections are the Four Books: Kitab al-Kafi, Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih, Tahdhib al-Ahkam, and Al-Istibsar. In the Ibadi branch of Islam, the main canonical collection is the Tartib al-Musnad. This is an expansion of the earlier Jami Sahih collection, which retains canonical status in its own right. The Ismaili shia sects use the Daim al-Islam as hadith collections. ‭ The Ahmadiyya sect generally rely on the Sunni canons. Some minor groups, collectively known as Quranists, reject the authority of the hadith collections altogether.[4][5] Impact on Islam[edit] The hadith had a profound and controversial influence on moulding the commentaries (tafsir) of the Quran. The earliest commentary of the Quran known as Tafsir Ibn Abbas is sometimes attributed to the companion Ibn Abbas, but this is rejected by scholars. The hadith were used in forming the basis of Sharia (the religious law system forming part of the Islamic tradition), and the hadith are at the root of why there is no single Sharia system, but rather a collection of parallel Sharia systems within Islam. Much of early Islamic history available today is also based on the hadith and is challenged for lack of basis in primary source material, as well as internal contradictions of the secondary material available. History, tradition and usage[edit] History[edit] This assertion re Muslim historians citing Uthman on hadith needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Traditions of the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down mostly orally for more than a hundred years after Muhammad's death in AD 632. Muslim historians say that Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (the third khalifa (caliph) of the Rashidun Empire, or third successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), is generally believed to urge Muslims to record the hadith just as Muhammad suggested to some of his followers to write down his words and actions.[20][21] Uthman's labours were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. No sources survive directly from this period so we are dependent on what later writers tell us about this period.[22] According to British historian of Arab world Alfred Guillaume, it is "certain" that "several small collections" of hadith were "assembled in Umayyad times."[23] In 851 the rationalist Mu`tazila school of thought fell from favor in the Abbasid Caliphate.[citation needed] The Mu`tazila, for whom the "judge of truth ... was human reason,"[24] had clashed with traditionists who looked to the literal meaning of the Quran and hadith for truth. While the Quran had been officially compiled and approved, hadiths had not. One result was the number of hadiths began "multiplying in suspiciously direct correlation to their utility" to the quoter of the hadith (Traditionists quoted hadith warning against listening to human opinion instead of Sharia; Hanafites quoted a hadith stating that "In my community there will rise a man called Abu Hanifa [the Hanafite founder] who will be its guiding light". In fact one agreed upon hadith warned that, "There will be forgers, liars who will bring you hadiths which neither you nor your forefathers have heard, Beware of them."[25] In addition the number of hadith grew enormously. While Malik ibn Anas had attributed just 1720 statements or deeds to the Muhammad, it was no longer unusual to find people who had collected a hundred times that number of hadith.[citation needed] Faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions supported differing views on a variety of controversial matters—some of them flatly contradicting each other—Islamic scholars of the Abbasid sought to authenticate hadith. Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic and which had been invented for political or theological purposes. To do this, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the science of hadith.[26] Shia and Sunni textual traditions[edit] Part of a series on Islam Allah3.svg Beliefs[show] Practices[show] Texts and laws[hide] Quran Sunnah Hadith Sharia (law) Fiqh (jurisprudence) Kalam (dialectic) History[show] Culture and society[show] Related topics[show] Allah-green.svg Islam portal v t e Sunni and Shia hadith collections differ because scholars from the two traditions differ as to the reliability of the narrators and transmitters. Narrators who took the side of Abu Bakr and Umar rather than Ali, in the disputes over leadership that followed the death of Muhammad, are seen as unreliable by the Shia; narrations sourced to Ali and the family of Muhammad, and to their supporters, are preferred. Sunni scholars put trust in narrators, such as Aisha, whom Shia reject. Differences in hadith collections have contributed to differences in worship practices and shari'a law and have hardened the dividing line between the two traditions. Extent and nature in the Sunni tradition[edit] In the Sunni tradition, the number of such texts is ten thousand plus or minus a few thousand.[27] But if, say, ten companions record a text reporting a single incident in the life of the prophet, hadith scholars can count this as ten hadiths. So Musnad Ahmad, for example, has over 30,000 hadiths—but this count includes texts that are repeated in order to record slight variations within the text or within the chains of narrations. Identifying the narrators of the various texts, comparing their narrations of the same texts to identify both the soundest reporting of a text and the reporters who are most sound in their reporting occupied experts of hadith throughout the 2nd century. In the 3rd century of Islam (from 225/840 to about 275/889),[28] hadith experts composed brief works recording a selection of about two- to five-thousand such texts which they felt to have been most soundly documented or most widely referred to in the Muslim scholarly community.[29] The 4th and 5th century saw these six works being commented on quite widely. This auxiliary literature has contributed to making their study the place of departure for any serious study of hadith. In addition, Bukhari and Muslim in particular, claimed that they were collecting only the soundest of sound hadiths. These later scholars tested their claims and agreed to them, so that today, they are considered the most reliable collections of hadith.[30] Toward the end of the 5th century, Ibn al-Qaisarani formally standardized the Sunni canon into six pivotal works, a delineation which remains to this day.[31][32][33] Over the centuries, several different categories of collections came into existence. Some are more general, like the muṣannaf, the muʿjam, and the jāmiʿ, and some more specific, either characterized by the topics treated, like the sunan (restricted to legal-liturgical traditions), or by its composition, like the arbaʿīniyyāt (collections of forty hadiths).[34] Extent and nature in the Shia tradition[edit] Shi'a Muslims do not use the six major hadith collections followed by the Sunni, as they do not trust many of the Sunni narrators and transmitters. They have their own extensive hadith literature. The best-known hadith collections are The Four Books, which were compiled by three authors who are known as the 'Three Muhammads'.[35] The Four Books are: Kitab al-Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni al-Razi (329 AH), Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih by Muhammad ibn Babuya and Al-Tahdhib and Al-Istibsar both by Shaykh Muhammad Tusi. Shi'a clerics also make use of extensive collections and commentaries by later authors. Unlike Sunnis, Shia do not consider any of their hadith collections to be sahih (authentic) in their entirety. Therefore, every individual hadith in a specific collection must be investigated separately to determine its authenticity.[36] Modern usage[edit] The mainstream sects consider hadith to be essential supplements to, and clarifications of, the Quran, Islam's holy book, as well as for clarifying issues pertaining to Islamic jurisprudence. Ibn al-Salah, a hadith specialist, described the relationship between hadith and other aspect of the religion by saying: "It is the science most pervasive in respect to the other sciences in their various branches, in particular to jurisprudence being the most important of them."[37] "The intended meaning of 'other sciences' here are those pertaining to religion," explains Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, "Quranic exegesis, hadith, and jurisprudence. The science of hadith became the most pervasive due to the need displayed by each of these three sciences. The need hadith has of its science is apparent. As for Quranic exegesis, then the preferred manner of explaining the speech of God is by means of what has been accepted as a statement of Muhammad. The one looking to this is in need of distinguishing the acceptable from the unacceptable. Regarding jurisprudence, then the jurist is in need of citing as an evidence the acceptable to the exception of the later, something only possible utilizing the science of hadith."[6] Studies[edit] Main article: Hadith studies Hadith studies use a number of methods of evaluation developed by early Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad. This is achieved by analyzing the text of the report, the scale of the report's transmission, the routes through which the report was transmitted, and the individual narrators involved in its transmission. On the basis of these criteria, various classifications were devised for hadith. The earliest comprehensive work in hadith studies was Abu Muhammad al-Ramahurmuzi's al-Muhaddith al-Fasil, while another significant work was al-Hakim al-Naysaburi's Ma‘rifat ‘ulum al-hadith. Ibn al-Salah's ʻUlum al-hadith is considered the standard classical reference on hadith studies.[11] Terminology: admissible and inadmissible hadiths[edit] Main article: Hadith terminology By means of hadith terminology, hadith are categorized as ṣaḥīḥ (sound, authentic), ḍaʿīf (weak), or mawḍūʿ (fabricated). Other classifications used also include: ḥasan (good), which refers to an otherwise ṣaḥīḥ report suffering from minor deficiency, or a weak report strengthened due to numerous other corroborating reports; and munkar (denounced) which is a report that is rejected due to the presence of an unreliable transmitter contradicting another more reliable narrator.[38] Both sahīh and hasan reports are considered acceptable for usage in Islamic legal discourse. Classifications of hadith may also be based upon the scale of transmission. Reports that pass through many reliable transmitters at each point in the isnad up until their collection and transcription are known as mutawātir. These reports are considered the most authoritative as they pass through so many different routes that collusion between all of the transmitters becomes an impossibility. Reports not meeting this standard are known as aahad, and are of several different types.[11] Some hadith are also called hadith qudsi (sacred hadith), like Ziyarat Ashura[citation needed]. It is a sub-category of hadith which some Muslims regard as the words of God (Arabic: Allah). According to as-Sayyid ash-Sharif al-Jurjani, the hadith qudsi differ from the Quran in that the former are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the latter are the "direct words of God". However, note that a hadith qudsi is not necessarily sahih, it can also be da‘if or even mawdu‘.[39] An example of a hadith qudsi is the hadith of Abu Hurairah who said that Muhammad said: When God decreed the Creation He pledged Himself by writing in His book which is laid down with Him: My mercy prevails over My wrath.[40][non-primary source needed] Biographical evaluation[edit] Main article: Biographical evaluation Another area of focus in the study of hadith is biographical analysis (‘ilm al-rijāl, lit. "science of people"), in which details about the transmitter are scrutinized. This includes analyzing their date and place of birth; familial connections; teachers and students; religiosity; moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death. Based upon these criteria, the reliability (thiqāt) of the transmitter is assessed. Also determined is whether the individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from their contemporaneity and geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the chain.[41] Examples of biographical dictionaries include: Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi's Al-Kamal fi Asma' al-Rijal, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's Tahdhīb al-Tahdhīb and al-Dhahabi's Tadhkirat al-huffaz.[42] Criticism[edit] Main article: Criticism of Hadith The major points of intra-Muslim criticism of the Hadith literature is based in questions regarding its authenticity.[43] However, Muslim criticism of ahadith is also based on theological and philosophical Islamic grounds of argument and critique. Muslim scholars have a long history of questioning the Hadith literature throughout Islamic history. Western academics also became active in the field later on. See also[edit] Book icon Book: Hadith Book: Islam Prophetic biography List of hadith authors and commentators References[edit] Jump up ^ "hadith". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Jump up ^ "Hadith". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. Retrieved 2011-08-13. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009), p. 3. ^ Jump up to: a b Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur’anists, Florida International University, accessed May 22, 2013. ^ Jump up to: a b Neal Robinson (2013), Islam: A Concise Introduction, Routledge, ISBN 978-0878402243, Chapter 7, pp. 85-89 ^ Jump up to: a b Ibn Hajar, Ahmad. al-Nukat ala Kitab ibn al-Salah, vol. 1, p. 90. Maktabah al-Furqan. Jump up ^ Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-1780744209. ^ Jump up to: a b c Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009), p. 4. Jump up ^ Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009), p. 6-7. Jump up ^ Islahi, Amin Ahsan (1989) [transl. 2009]. Mabadi Tadabbur-i-Hadith (translated as: "Fundamentals of Hadith Interpretation") (in Urdu). Lahore: Al-Mawrid. Retrieved 2 June 2011. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Campo, Juan Eduardo. ""Hadith"". Encyclopedia of Islam. Jump up ^ The Future of Muslim Civilisation by Ziauddin Sardar, 1979, page 26. Jump up ^ "Mawrid Reader". ejtaal.net. Jump up ^ al-Kuliyat by Abu al-Baqa’ al-Kafawi, p. 370; Mu'assasah l-Risalah. This last phrase is quoted by al-Qasimi in Qawaid al-Tahdith, p. 61; Dar al-Nafais. Jump up ^ Lisan al-Arab, by Ibn Manthour, vol. 2, p. 350; Dar al-Hadith edition. Jump up ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled (22 March 2011). "What is Shari'a?". ABC RELIGION AND ETHICS. Retrieved 20 June 2015. Jump up ^ al-Asqalani, Ahmad ibn 'Ali. Fath al-Bari (in Arabic). 1. Egypt: al-Matba'ah al-Salafiyyah. p. 193. ISBN 1-902350-04-9. Jump up ^ Tadrib al-Rawi, vol. 1, pp. 39–41 with abridgement. Jump up ^ Ilm al-Rijal wa Ahimiyatih, by Mualami, p. 16, Dar al-Rayah. Jump up ^ ^ Tirmidhi, "‘Ilm," 12. Jump up ^ ^ Collected in the Musnad of Ahmad (10\15-6\ 6510 and also nos. 6930, 7017 and 1720), Sunan Abu Dawud (Mukhtasar Sunan Abi Dawud (5\246\3499) and elsewhere. Jump up ^ Roman, provincial and Islamic law, Patricia Crone, p2 Jump up ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1954). Islam (2nd (Revised) ed.). Penguin. p. 89. ISBN 0140135553 Jump up ^ Martin, Matthew (2013). Mu'tazila - use of reason in Islamic theology. Amazon. Retrieved 8 September 2015. Jump up ^ Goldziher, Ignác (1967). Muslim Studies, Vol. 1. SUNY Press. p. 127. ISBN 0873952340 Jump up ^ Islam – the Straight Path, John Eposito, p.81 Jump up ^ See the references and discussion by Abdul Fattah Abu Ghuddah Thalathatu rasa'il fi ulum al-hadith; risalat abi dawud ila ahl makkata fi wasf sunanihi, pg 36, footnote. Beirut: Maktaba al-Matbu'at al-Islamiyah: 2nd ed 1426/2005. Jump up ^ The earliest book, Bukhari's Sahih was composed by 225/840 since he states that he spent sixteen years composing it (Hady al-Sari, introduction to Fath al-Bari, p. 489, Lahore: Dar Nashr al-Kutub al-Islamiya, 1981/1401) and also that he showed it to Yahya ibn Ma'in (p. 8, ibid.) who died in 233. Nasa'i, the last to die of the authors of the six books, died in 303/915. He probably completed this work a few decades before his death: by 275 or so. Jump up ^ Counting multiple narrations of the same texts as a single text, the number of hadiths each author has recorded roughly as follows: Bukhari (as in Zabidi's Mukhtasar of Bukhari's book) 2134, Muslim (as in Mundhiri's Mukhtasar of Muslim's book) 2200, Tirmidhi 4000, Abu Dawud 4000, Nasa'i 4800, Ibn Majah 4300. There is considerable overlap amongst the six books so that Ibn al-Athir's Jami' al-Usul, which gathers together the hadiths texts of all six books deleting repeated texts, has about 9500 hadiths. Jump up ^ Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, p. 160 Dar al-Ma’aarif edition Jump up ^ Ignác Goldziher, Muslim Studies, vol. 2, p. 240. Halle, 1889-1890. ISBN 0-202-30778-6 Jump up ^ Scott C. Lucas, Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunnī Islam, p. 106. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2004. Jump up ^ Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by William McGuckin de Slane. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Sold by Institut de France and Royal Library of Belgium. Vol. 3, p. 5. Jump up ^ Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi, Hadith Literature, Cambridge, Islamic Texts Society, 1993, edited and revised by Abdal Hakim Murad. Jump up ^ Momen, Moojan, Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p.174. Jump up ^ Mohammad A. Shomali (2003). Shi'i Islam: Origins, Faith and Practices (reprint ed.). ICAS Press. p. 35. ISBN 9781904063117. Jump up ^ Ulum al-Hadith by Ibn al-Salah, p. 5, Dar al-Fikr, with the verification of Nur al-Din al-‘Itr. Jump up ^ See: "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam Online; "Hadith," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world. Jump up ^ "Qu'est-ce que le hadith Qudsi ?". aslamna.info. Jump up ^ Related by al-Bukhari, Muslim, an-Nasa'i and Ibn Majah. Jump up ^ Berg (2000) p. 8 Jump up ^ See: Robinson (2003) pp. 69–70; Lucas (2004) p. 15 Jump up ^ B. Hallaq, Wael (1999). "The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadîth: A Pseudo-Problem". Studia Islamica. No. 89 (1999): 75–90. JSTOR 1596086. (Registration required (help)). Bibliography[edit] Berg, H. (2000). The development of exegesis in early Islam: the authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1224-0. Brown, Jonathan A. C. (2004). "Criticism of the Proto-Hadith Canon: Al-daraqutni's Adjustment of the Sahihayn". Journal of Islamic Studies. 15 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1093/jis/15.1.1. Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim (PDF). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 9789004158399. Retrieved 3 October 2017. Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (Foundations of Islam). Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1851686636. Lucas, S. (2004). Constructive Critics, Hadith Literature, and the Articulation of Sunni Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13319-4. Robinson, C. F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-62936-5. Robson, J. "Hadith". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. Senturk, Recep (2005). Narrative Social Structure: Anatomy of the Hadith Transmission Network, 610-1505. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804752077. Swarup, Ram (1983). Understanding Islam through Hadis. New Delhi: Voice of India. ISBN 9788185990736. Retrieved 3 October 2017. Further reading[edit] 1000 Qudsi Hadiths: An Encyclopedia of Divine Sayings; New York: Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2012) ISBN 978-1-4700-2994-4 Hallaq, Wael B. (1999). "The Authenticity of Prophetic Ḥadîth: A Pseudo-Problem". Studia Islamica (89): 75–90. doi:10.2307/1596086. ISSN 0585-5292. JSTOR 1596086. Brown, J. (2007). The Canonization of al-Bukhari and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunni Hadith Canon. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Brown, J. (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1851686636. Juynboll, G. H. A. (2007). Encyclopedia of Canonical Hadith. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Lucas, S. (2002). The Arts of Hadith Compilation and Criticism. University of Chicago. OCLC 62284281. Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008. ISBN 0-230-60535-4 Fred M. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins (1998) Tottoli, Roberto, "Hadith", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 231–236. External links[edit] Look up hadith in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Hadith Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hadith. Importance of hadith Hadith – Search by keyword and find hadith by narrator Hadith by Narrator – Find hadith by narrators Hadith Advanced Search – Search by keyword Hadith app, All 13 ahadith books Wikisource-logo.svg "Hadith". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. Wikisource-logo.svg "Hadis". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. 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www.@official kids academy school.compk facebook.com Hadith From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Part of a series on Hadith Hadith studies [show] Collections [show] Related topics [show] Category Book v t e A hadith ( / ˈ h æ d ɪ θ / [1] or / h ɑː ˈ d iː θ / ; [2] Arabic : حديث ‎ ḥadīth , plural: ahadith , أحاديث , ʼaḥādīth [3] ) is one of various reports describing the words, actions, or habits of the Islamic prophet Muhammad . [3] The term comes from the Arabic language and means a "report", "account" or "narrative". Unlike the Qur'an, which is the same literary work recognized by all Muslims, the ahadith are not one single same collection. The ahadith refers to different hadith collections, and different branches of Islam ( Sunni , Shia , Ibadi ) consult different collections of hadith, while the relatively small sect ...

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